Introduction
When a person receives a special, valuable gift from someone close to him, the normal response is to take good care of the gift and use it with great care to prevent it from being damaged or broken. Shabbat is a gift of great value that we received from G-d Himself, and it is therefore very important for us to know how to observe it properly and protect it from desecration.
We must begin any discussion of this sort by recognizing that the laws of Shabbat are vast and exceedingly complex. In this booklet, we have endeavored to provide you with basic knowledge of the areas associated with Shabbat observance.
We will begin with an overview of some of the basic concepts associated with the laws of Shabbat. Following this overview, we will enumerate the prohibitions that are most commonly applicable on a weekly basis.
It is important to remember, however, that there are additional things that may be forbidden (or permitted) on Shabbat, and this booklet contains only a partial listing. Whenever a question or doubt arises, the reader is urged to turn to the rabbi of his synagogue, neighborhood, or city.
Melachah—Forbidden Labor
The Torah couches the prohibition of performing “work” on Shabbat in the following words: “The seventh day shall be a Sabbath for Hashem, your G-d; you shall not do any Melachah.” Melachah is usually translated as “work” or “labor.” But what is the exact definition of that which is forbidden on Shabbat?
Contrary to popular misconceptions, Melachah does not necessarily entail physical exertion. On the contrary, the halachic definition of “labor,” of the type that is prohibited on Shabbat, is any sort of creative activity or an act that can be characterized as “work” based on the thought process that goes into it. Thus, for example, writing and cooking are considered “work” on Shabbat, whereas dragging a heavy piece of furniture across a hard floor is not considered “work,” regardless of the strenuous effort involved.
Our Sages enumerate for us the forbidden labors of Shabbat, which are divided into 39 principal categories. The factor that determines whether a particular activity is considered Melachah is the question of whether it was performed in the Mishkan, the Tabernacle that the Jewish people were commanded to erect in the wilderness. (The Mishkan was a wooden structure that served as a sanctuary and a “home” for G-d. It was a temporary structure that was the precursor to the Holy Temple, which was later built in Jerusalem by King Solomon. The Mishkan served the Jewish people as a central place of worship throughout their sojourn in the wilderness and for several hundred years after that.)
The 39 forms of forbidden labor include agricultural work (from plowing and planting to harvesting and threshing the grain), cooking, baking, sewing, weaving, writing, building, kindling fires, and other activities.
Parent and “Child” Melachot
The 39 categories are forbidden labor as known as the avot (literally, “fathers” or “parents”—av in the singular), but each “parent” class of prohibited activities encompasses an array of other actions that are similar to the “parent” in terms of the way they are performed, their purpose, or other factors. These other activities, which can be considered derivatives of the Avot, are known as Toladot (literally, “offspring”— toladah in the singular). The prohibition of performing an act classified as a Toladah is just as stringent as the prohibition of engaging in an activity that is considered an Av.
Let us clarify this concept with an example. One of the 39 primary forms of forbidden work is the Melachah known as Boneh, (building). By definition, “building” means erecting a structure, and that is the nature of the “Av,” the primary Melachah. But there are a number of other activities that are either directly or indirectly related to building, and these activities are also prohibited on Shabbat. The prohibition of engaging in these activities is a Toladah, or derivative, of the “parent” Melachah of “building.” Thus, various forms of assembling an object are prohibited on Shabbat as derivatives of “building,” such as erecting a permanent canopy, forming a braid in a person’s hair, and even producing cheese. (The process of cheese production causes the smaller components of the cheese to unite into a single unit.)
The details of all the Avot and Toladot of the activities forbidden on Shabbat are manifold and complex. This booklet can provide only a small taste of the essence of the 39 Melachot. For more details and an extensive discussion of the topic, the reader is encouraged to peruse the various works of halachah (Jewish law) that deal with the laws of Shabbat.
The 39 Avot Melachot
The following is a list of the 39 categories of forbidden labor that were performed in the Mishkan. Each category will be accompanied by its basic definition, examples of the Melachah, and Toladot or Rabbinic prohibitions that are associated with it and are relevant to us in a practical sense.
- Zore’a—Planting: any form of sowing seeds, planting trees, or any other activity that aids in the growth of plants
- Pruning branches, removing unwanted weeds, watering plants
- Choreish—Plowing: Preparing and improving the ground to accommodate sowing or planting
- Removing objects that interfere with the growth of plants, digging a hole, clearing stones from a field
- Kotzeir—Harvesting: place of growth
- Harvesting grain, picking a fruit from a tree, removing spider webs from the ceiling
- Me’ameir—Gathering: Collecting grain from its place of growth
- Gathering scattered stalks of wheat into a single pile, making a pile of branches and reeds in order to kindle a fire
- Dosh—Threshing: Separating plants from the waste that naturally grows with them
- Removing the outer shell of dried legumes, squeezing the juice out of grapes and olives, milking a cow
- Zoreh—Winnowing: Throwing grain up in the air to allow the wind to separate the heavier stalks from the lighter chaff
- Separating food from waste by blowing with one’s mouth
- Borer—Selecting: Separating desired material from undesired material by means of a special utensil
- Separating two different types of food, washing dirt or sand off a fruit, sorting cutlery or other items
- Tochain—Grinding: Crushing or crumbling items that grew from the ground into small pieces
- Pulverizing wheat into flour, cutting vegetables into small pieces for a salad
- Merakaid—Sifting: Separating desired material from undesired material by sifting it in a utensil
- Sifting flour, straining dregs out of wine
- Losh—Kneading: Attaching or fusing two different elements to form a single unit or doughy substance
- Mixing water with flour to create dough, making ink, preparing baby cereal
- Ofeh/Mevasheil—Baking and Cooking: Creating a change in a substance through the application of heat
- Cooking, baking, frying, or roasting foods; melting wax; pouring cold water into boiling water
- Gozeiz—Shearing: Uprooting an object from its natural place of growth on the body of a human being or animal, whether alive or dead
- Shearing the wool of a sheep, cutting fingernails, combing or brushing hair, plucking loose skin off the body
- Melabein/Mechabeis—Bleaching/Laundering: Cleaning and whitening wool after it has been sheared, in order to make it fit to be made into a garment
- Cleansing a garment by laundering or rinsing it, rubbing a soiled garment while it is wet, wringing water out of a garment
- Menapeitz—Combing: Separating and preparing the raw material used to make threads
- Separating fibers, striking wool with sticks in order cause the individual strands to separate
- Tzovei’a—Dyeing: Causing a change in the color of an object or strengthening an existing color
- Painting the walls of a house, drawing on a piece of paper or fabric, using lipstick or nail polish
- Toveh—Spinning: Making threads out of raw material by pulling, stretching, twisting together, and the like
- Meiseich-Warping: Preparing for weaving by setting up the horizontal threats (warp) in order to make it possible to weave the vertical threads (weft) through them afterward
- Fashioning nets or mats out of straw, making bracelets out of threads
- Oseh Batei Nirin—Making Heddles: Setting up the weft threads on the weaving apparatus
- Oreig—Weaving: Weaving the weft threads through the warp threads
- Making fabric by weaving vertical threads through horizontal threads, knitting a kippah, embroidering
- Potzei’a—Unraveling: The opposite of “weaving”— unraveling a woven or braided object
- Removing a thread from a garment in order to fix it, undoing permanent braids in a wig
- Koshair—Tying: Making a strong knot that is permanent enough to last for an indefinite amount of time
- Making a double knot in shoelaces, tying knots in a fisherman’s net
- Matir—Untying: The opposite of “tying”—undoing a permanent knot
- Tofair—Sewing: Attaching two pieces of fabric or other material (with threads, glue, and the like)
- Sewing a garment, gluing papers or hides together
- Korei’a—Tearing: The opposite of “sewing” – detaching materials by tearing them (without destroying them)
- Separating items that are glued together, tearing paper or fabric, tearing the ends of an envelope
- Tzod—Trapping: Capturing living things that are commonly trapped (without being killed) in order to use them
- Limiting the mobility of living things to the point that they can be easily captured, striking a living creature and wounding it
- Shocheit—Slaughtering: Killing a living creature in order to use it
- Any action that shortens the life of a living creature, such as strangling an animal or removing a fish from water
- Mafshit—Flaying: Stripping the skin off a living creature after its death
- Me’abaid—Tanning: Processing hides or other raw materials to prepare them for use
- Spreading oil on a shoe, polishing a shoe with a brush, salting sharp foods
- Memachaik—Smoothing: Smoothing hides or other materials in order to prepare them for use
- Sanding down or smoothing a stone, applying an ointment to a bandage, washing hands or dishes with liquid soap
- Mesarteit—Scraping: Scraping lines on a piece of parchment or paper in order to prepare it for creating or for cutting
- Mechateich—Cutting to Size: Cutting materials in accordance with the necessary size and measurement
- Cutting fabric or string to a specific size
- Koteiv—Writing: Writing letters or drawing images that people consider to be recognizable symbols
- Drawing pictures, “writing” on a foggy windowpane, “writing” in dirt or sand, typing on a computer
- Mocheik—Erasing: The opposite of writing – erasing letters of images for the purpose of creating new writing
- Opening a bag of chips where the letters appear
- Boneh—Building: An action that serves to erect a structure or a portion thereof
- Placing stones on top of each other, evening out the ground or digging a pit, making a permanent tent, making cheese
- Soteir—Demolishing: The opposite of “building”— dismantling or destroying a structure that was built
- Mav’ir—Kindling: Lighting a fire, enlarging it, or extending its life
- Adding oil to a lit candle, turning on an electric light, driving a car
- Mechabeh—Extinguishing: The opposite of “kindling”—extinguishing a fire, limiting the extent of its burning, or reducing its life span
- Lowering the flame on a stove, moving a lit candle
- Makeh B’patish—The Final Blow: The final strike of a hammer represents any action that completes a process or product.
- Opening a can of preserves, sharpening a knife, folding garments in a specific way
- Motzi Mei’reshut L’reshut—Transferring an Object from One Domain to Another: Moving an object from a “private domain” to a “public domain” or vice versa. This Melachah is sometimes known as tiltul, “moving.” See below for further details.
- Moving an object a distance of four cubits in a public domain
Transferring from Domain to Domain
In order to get a better understanding of the definition of this Melachah, let us understand the nature of the “domains” that the halachah identifies. There are three basic types of domains.
Reshut Hayachid (A Private Domain) is a term for any area surrounded by walls or partitions and occupying a minimum area of four fist-breadths by four fist-breadths, the equivalent of about 1.2 square meters. In order to be considered a private domain, the area must be separated from an adjacent public domain by a wall or partition with a height of at least ten fist-breadths (about 80 centimeters).
- Examples of a private domain include a residential home, a courtyard, a car, a large wagon, and the like. Even a stadium can be considered a private domain, provided that it is surrounded by walls on all four sides.
- A private domain does not have to be subject to private ownership. Even a large area jointly owned by many people can be transformed into a large private domain. (See below regarding an Eiruv.)
Reshut Harabbim (A Public Domain) is a term for any public area that is neither covered by a roof nor enclosed by walls and that serves as a thoroughfare for many people. A public domain must have a minimum width of 16 cubits (about eight meters), and both ends of the thoroughfare must open onto an intercity road.
- Some authorities maintain that only a thoroughfare that is traveled by a minimum of 600,000 people every day has the status of a public domain.
- Examples include a large main boulevard, an intercity highway, and the like.
A Karmelit is a “neutral” domain that does not meet the criteria of either a public or a private domain. A Karmelit is not enclosed within walls or covered by a roof, making it similar to a public domain, but it is not designated for the passage of large numbers of people, which renders it similar to a private domain.
- Examples of a Karmelit include fields, seas, rivers, deserts, and the like.
The Torah prohibits the transfer of any object from a public domain to a private domain or vice versa at any point during Shabbat. It is also prohibited to transport an object for a distance of more than four cubits (about 1.8 meters) in a public domain. In practical terms, this means that a person who is carrying any object (or who has an object in his pockets or the like) may not move from one domain to another or walk through a public area. It is permissible, however, to move between domains or to walk through a public domain while wearing clothing. A woman is also permitted to wear jewelry. These items are not considered foreign objects that one is transferring between domains; rather, they are considered to be part of the person himself.
Walking Out of the City
The prohibition of carrying objects may impose some restrictions on one’s ability to move about, but it does not present an insurmountable obstacle. It is possible, after all, to empty one’s pockets and move about without taking any objects along. Nevertheless, even a person who is not carrying anything does not have complete freedom of movement on Shabbat. In addition to the prohibition of carrying, there is another prohibition that applies to walking itself; it is forbidden to travel more than 2000 cubits (approximately one kilometer) past the end of the city or town where one is located. A common application of this principle is in a case where a new mother is hospitalized following birth and her husband wishes to travel to the hospital on foot in order to visit her on Shabbat. If the hospital is located outside the city or town where the husband resides, he must ascertain that it is within the distance that he is permitted to walk on Shabbat.
- If a person knows in advance that he will have to walk a significant distance on Shabbat, it is possible to make an Eiruv Techumin, a halachic device that will permit him to travel up to a distance of about two kilometers past the edge of town. This process and the rules governing it are particularly complex; consequently, an Eiruv Techumin should be performed only under the guidance of a competent rabbi who is well-versed in the relevant laws.
The Eiruv
An Eiruv is a unique mechanism that makes it possible to carry objects outdoors, or to transfer objects between domains, on Shabbat. As we mentioned earlier, an Eiruv can be used to transform a large area shared by many people into a “private domain.”
In general, an Eiruv consists of a set of poles surrounding a city or neighborhood, with a thin string running from the top of each pole to the top of the next. The poles enclose the desired area and render it a single unit, from a halachic perspective.
The Eiruv is an extremely valuable device, since it permits us to live in a normal manner on Shabbat. The Eiruv makes it possible to carry a siddur, to push a baby carriage, and to engage in other activities that simplify our lives.
Eiruv Chatzeirot
There is another procedure that must be performed in order to make the Eiruv complete and to permit the transfer of objects within the enclosed area. In order to render the Eiruv effective, the local rabbi must place a package of food in a designated place in the synagogue. (In general, matzah is used for this purpose since it tends to remain edible for long periods of time.) The food is designated for the consumption of all the local residents and creates a symbolic partnership of sorts between all the people who live within the area of the Eiruv.
In Israel, there is a special department in the Ministry of Religious Services that provides for the establishment and upkeep of Eiruvin (the plural of Eiruv) throughout the land. This department operates in conjunction with the local rabbinates and the various religious councils that exist throughout the country. Nowadays, there are hardly any cities or communities in Israel that lack a proper Eiruv, and it is rare to be in a situation in which one is prevented from carrying on Shabbat.
Outside of Israel, on the other hand, the situation is entirely different and carrying on Shabbat can be very problematic. It is important to confirm the existence of a kosher Eiruv in every location independently.
Muktzeh
The 39 forms of forbidden labor have the status of Biblical law and are considered to have emanated from the Torah itself. In addition to these prohibitions, the Sages instituted an additional restriction, whose purpose is to create a distinction between Shabbat and the other days of the week. This Rabbinic prohibition proscribes moving or handling objects associated with mundane, weekday activities. Preferably, one should not even touch any such objects. The Sages felt that handling such objects has the potential to lead to Shabbat desecration and should therefore be forbidden.
Such objects, which may not be moved or handled on Shabbat, are termed “Muktzeh.” The Hebrew word Muktzeh literally means “set aside,” and these objects are dubbed Muktzeh because they are “set aside” for weekday use and are not permitted to be handled on Shabbat.
The rules governing the handling of Muktzeh objects are complex and varied. There are about ten different categories of Muktzeh; we will enumerate the ones that are the most common and practical:
Hachanah / Preparing for After Shabbat
Our Sages also instituted a prohibition to prepare on Shabbat for any weekday, even for immediately after Shabbat ends. It is considered an act of disrespect to the hallowed Shabbat day to engage in preparations on Shabbat for something that will take place after it ends. Thus, for example, it is forbidden to clean and prepare one’s home on Shabbat for an event that will be held there after Shabbat.
- It is permissible to clean and organize the home in order to preserve the honor of Shabbat itself, for example, to remove the source of an offensive odor or to straighten up the home in honor of Shabbat.
Amirah L’Nochri/Instructing a Gentile to Perform Melachah
While non-Jews are not enjoined to observe Shabbat, it is forbidden for a Jew to ask or instruct a non-Jew to perform for him any activity that he himself is not permitted to do on Shabbat. (Furthermore, one may not even ask a non-Jew before Shabbat to perform such an activity on Shabbat.) The Sages prohibited this because the non-Jew would be viewed as the “emissary” of the Jew. As a result, asking a non-Jew to perform an act forbidden on Shabbat would be, in a sense, tantamount to the Jew actually performing that act himself. One may neither ask a non-Jew directly nor hint to him to do anything that violates the laws of Shabbat.
It is also prohibited to derive benefit from an act that is forbidden on Shabbat when a non-Jew performs it on behalf of a Jew. This prohibition applies even if the non-Jew performs the act of his own accord, without being asked by the Jew to do so. For example, if a non-Jew notices that the lights in a Jew’s house are off, and he turns on the lights for the benefit of the Jewish residents of the house, it is prohibited for them to derive any benefit from those lights.
- If a non-Jew performs an act of Shabbat desecration for his own benefit, it is permissible for a Jew to derive benefit from it. Thus, for instance, if a non-Jew turns on a light in a dark room so that he can read a book, a Jew would also be permitted to benefit from the light.
In many neighborhoods, one can find a non-Jew known as a “Shabbat goy,” who is versed in the laws of Amirah L’nochri and available to help Jews with their needs on Shabbat whenever the situation permits it. Nevertheless, in any situation when one must solicit the assistance of a non-Jew on Shabbat, it is preferable to consult with a rabbi in order to determine exactly how to do so.
